ANALYSIS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW ON THE USE OF BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS
Keywords:
biological weapons; international humanitarian law; war crimes; IHL principles; Biological Weapons ConventionAbstract
This research aims to examine whether the use of biological weapons constitutes a violation of the fundamental principles of International Humanitarian Law (IHL), specifically the principles of distinction, proportionality, unnecessary suffering, and precaution. This study employs a normative juridical method by analyzing international legal instruments such as the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols, as well as historical precedents and documented uses of biological agents in armed conflicts. The analysis is conducted through systematic and historical interpretation, connecting the evolution of biological weapons with the contemporary framework of IHL. The findings indicate that biological weapons inherently contradict the core principles of IHL due to their indiscriminate nature, uncontrollable spread, prolonged suffering, and large-scale impact on civilian populations. These characteristics render biological weapons incapable of distinguishing between legitimate military targets and civilians, resulting in unavoidable and disproportionate harm. Moreover, their pathogenic properties produce excessive suffering and create significant risks beyond the battlefield, thereby violating the principles of unnecessary suffering and precaution. Consequently, the use of biological weapons in any armed conflict qualifies as a serious breach of IHL and may constitute a war crime under international legal regimes.
Downloads
References
———. “Urgensi Peraturan Bioterorisme Di Indonesia Dalam Perspektif Hak Asasi Manusia.” Jurnal HAM 11, no. 2 (2020): 169–84.
Ambarwati, D. R., & Rusman, R. (2009). Hukum Humaniter Internasional dalam Studi Hubungan Internasional. Jakarta: RajaGrafindo.
Boddington, P. (2022). Biotechnology, ethics, and global security: Emerging risks of biological weapons. Oxford University Press.
Clunan, A. L., & Saxton, G. (2023). Legal and ethical gaps in global biosecurity governance: Challenges for compliance under the Biological Weapons Convention. Journal of Global Security Studies, 8(1), 55–72. https://doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogac032
Danzig, R. (2021). The future of biological warfare: Strategic risks and humanitarian implications. Survival, 63(4), 85–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2021.1948742
Feakes, D. (2024). Strengthening the Biological Weapons Convention through verification and transparency mechanisms. Nonproliferation Review, 31(2), 112–134.
Gasser, Hans-Peter. “A Look at the Declaration of St. Petersburg of 1868.” International Review of the Red Cross (1961-1997) 33, no. 297 (1993): 511–16.
Gibbon, Edward. “Program Early in the 20th Century as a Result of the Devastating.” The Sleeper Agent: The Rise of Lyme Disease, Chronic Illness, and the Great Imitator Antigens of Biological Warfare, 2023.
Guillemin, J. (2021). Biological threats and weapons: Science, technology, and policy challenges. Harvard University Press.
Hampson, F. J. (2022). International humanitarian law and weapons causing unnecessary suffering: A re-evaluation in the era of biotechnology. International Review of the Red Cross, 104(920), 125–147. https://doi.org/10.1017/S181638312200020X
Handoyo, Aris. Manajemen Sekuriti. Elex Media Komputindo, 2003.
HARTATI, ANNA YULIA. “Propaganda Nuklir Korea Utara (Studi Perlawanan Korea Utara Terhadap Amerika Serikat).” Laporan Penelitian Dan Pengabdian Masyarakat, 2013.
Hasibuan, Abdul Lawali, and Nanang Tomi Sitorus. “Pertanggungjawaban Pidana Bagi Pelaku Penggunaan Bahan Peledak Di Perairan Aceh Singkil (Studi Putusan Nomor 45/Pid. Sus/2023/Pn. Skl),” 2024.
Imara, Fatih Akbar, Sovian Aritonang, and Masdalina Pane. “Analisis Upaya Strategis Menghadapi Ancaman Antraks Sebagai Senjata Biologi.” Industri Pertahanan 1, no. 2 (2020): 1–15.
Imasfy, M, Akhmad Alif, Tarsisius Susilo, Budiman Marpaung, and Budi Saroso. “Kajian Hukum Humaniter Internasional Mengenai Perang Siber Dalam Kaitannya Dengan Serangan Infrastruktur Kritis.” Jurnal Sosial Dan Sains (SOSAINS) 5, no. 5 (2025).
Johnson, Kishor. “A Scientific Method to the Madness of Unit 731’s Human Experimentation and Biological Warfare Program.” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 77, no. 1 (2022): 24–47.
Kusumaatmadja, M. (2002). Konvensi-Konvensi Palang Merah 1949. Bandung: Alumni.
Lasley, Trason. “Synthetic Biology: Is It Prohibited by the Biological Weapons Convention or Other International Laws?” Int’l JL Ethics Tech., 2023, 1.
Leitenberg, M. (2021). The problem of biological weapons: History, law, and contemporary challenges. Cornell University Press.
Leitenberg, Milton. Assessing the Biological Weapons and Bioterrorism Threat. DIANE Publishing, 2005.
López, C., & Meyer, S. (2024). Distinction and proportionality under biological threats: Revisiting IHL principles in unconventional warfare. Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies, 15(2), 201–230.
Mayor, Adrienne. “Chemical and Biological Warfare in Antiquity.” In Toxicology in Antiquity, 243–55. Elsevier, 2019.
Meselson, M. (2022). The humanitarian necessity of banning biological weapons: Scientific perspectives for a safer world. Science & Global Security, 30(3), 145–161.
Nurbani, E. S. (2017). “Perkembangan Teknologi Senjata dan Prinsip Proporsionalitas.” Jurnal IUS Kajian Hukum dan Keadilan, 5(1), 13–29.
Permanasari, A., dkk. (1999). Pengantar Hukum Humaniter. Jakarta: ICRC.
Reeves, K., & McClellan, J. (2023). The unpredictability of biological agents and the legal implications for the precautionary principle. Health Security, 21(2), 89–103.
Roth, K., & Williams, T. (2025). Global governance and compliance failures in preventing biological warfare. Global Policy, 16(1), 45–62.
Sagan, S. D., & Valentino, B. (2022). The strategic logic of biological weapons in modern conflicts. International Security, 47(1), 122–150.
Scharf, M., & Talmon, C. (2023). Accountability for the use of biological weapons under international law. International & Comparative Law Quarterly, 72(3), 601–628.
Sidauruk, Sarah Marisi Ireney, Nuswantoro Dwiwarno, and M Kabul Supriyadhie. “Penggunaan Autonomous Weapons System Dalam Konflik Bersenjata Internasional Menurut Hukum Humaniter Internasional.” Diponegoro Law Journal 8, no. 2 (2019): 1489–1505.
Soeliongan, A. E. (2020). “Urgensi Peraturan Bioterorisme di Indonesia dalam Perspektif HAM.” Jurnal HAM, 11(2), 169–184.
Soeliongan, Amanda Eugenia. “The Urgency of Bioterrorism Regulations in Indonesia on Human Rights Perspective.” Jurnal HAM 11 (2020): 169.
Sofiani, J. C., & Mahdum. (2022). “Senjata Biologis dalam Perspektif Aksiologi.” Humantech, 1(9), 1192–1201.
Sofiani, Sofiani, Jimmi Copriady, and Mahdum Mahdum. “SENJATA BIOLOGIS DALAM PERSPEKTIF AKSIOLOGI.” Humantech: Jurnal Ilmiah Multidisiplin Indonesia 1, no. 9 (2022): 1192–1201.
Sondakh, Andhita Imannuela. “PENGGUNAAN ALAT PERANG MENURUT HUKUM HUMANITER INTERNASIONAL DALAM KONFLIK BERSENJATA ANTAR NEGARA.” LEX CRIMEN 12, no. 4 (2024).
Spiers, Edward M. A History of Chemical and Biological Weapons. Reaktion Books, 2010.
Sujatmoko, A. (2016). Hukum HAM dan Hukum Humaniter. Jakarta: RajaGrafindo.
Sulistia, T. (2021). “Pengaturan Perang dan Konflik Bersenjata dalam HHI.” Indonesian Journal of International Law, 4(3), 540–565.
Tarigan, Rudi Salam, Yasmirah Mandasari Saragih, Tamaulina Br Sembiring, Saptha Nugraha Isa, and Servasius Edwin Telaumbanua. “PENGEMBANGAN METODE PENELITIAN HUKUM DI INDONESIA.” Jurnal Intelek Insan Cendikia 2, no. 1 (2025): 1093–1100.
Teigens, Vasil, Peter Skalfist, and Daniel Mikelsten. Sejarah Senjata Dan Teknologi Militer Sejak Dimulainya. Cambridge Stanford Books, 2024.
TENING, ELISIANA CECELIA. “Tinjauan Terhadap Penggunaan Senjata Kimia Sebagai Salah Satu Jenis Senjata Pemusnah Massal Di Dalam Konflik Bersenjata Di Suriah Berdasarkan Chemical Weapons Convention (Cwc).” Jurnal Hukum Prodi Ilmu Hukum Fakultas Hukum Untan (Jurnal Mahasiswa S1 Fakultas Hukum) Universitas Tanjungpura 4, no. 3 (2023).
Tucker, J. B. (2021). War of the unseen: The global resurgence of biological threats and the struggle for control. Yale University Press.
Wardaya, Manunggal Kusuma. “Dealing with the Dark Past. The Prospect of the Settlement of the 1965-1966 Events in Indonesia,” 2021.
Weir, L., & Mykhalovskiy, E. (2024). Public health, biological risks, and norms of international humanitarian law. Global Public Health, 19(5), 765–781.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
